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BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
A. LATAR BELAKANG
Dalam keseharian kita, Istilah demand (permintaan) dan supply (penawaran) terdapat dalam ilmu ekonomi yang saling terkait satu sama lain antara pembeli dan penjual di pasar, untuk membentuk satuan harga dan kuantitas dalam setiap traansaksi perdagangan, kedua hal tersebut saling mempengaruhi. Ada anggapan bahwa ilmu ekonomi dimulai dan diakhiri dengan hukum permintaan dan penawaran, jelas bahwa anggapan ini terlalu mengandalkan ilmu ekonomi satu seksi atau ilmu ekonomi satu menit. Akan tetapi hukum yang dikenal dengan hukum penawaran dan permintaan memang merupakan bagian yang terpenting dalam pemahaman kita mengenai sistem pasar.
Pertama kita perlu mengetahui apa saja yang mempengaruhi permintaan dan penawaran komoditi tertentu berikutnya baru kita dapat melihat bagaimana permintaan dan penawaran bersama-sama menentukan harga serta bagaimana sistem harga itu secara keseluruhan memungkinkan sistem perekonomian bereaksi terhadap perubahan permintaan dan perubahan penawaran. Permintaan dan penawaran membantu kita dalam memahami keberhasilan sistem harga dan juga kegagalannya.
Interaksi antara permintaan dan penawaran akan menciptakan keseimbangan pasar terjadi apabila pada harga keseimbangan jumlah barang yang diminta konsumen sama persis dengan jumlah yang ditawarkan produsen secara grafis keseimbangan pasar tercapai apabila kurva permintaan dan penawaran berpotongan, titik perpotongan tersebut disebut titik keseimbangan.
B. PERMASALAHAN
Dari penjelasan latar belakang diatas, maka dapat dirumuskan beberapa permasalahan pada makalah ini adalah:
1. Teori Permintaan dan Penawaran.?
2. Hukum Permintaan dan Penawaran.?
3. Macam-macam Permintaan dan Penawaran.?
4. Faktor-Faktor yang mempengaruhi Permintaan dan Penawaran.?
C. TUJUAN PENULISAN
Adapun ujuan penulisan makalah ini adalah :
1. Memberikan Pengetahuan Kepada Masyarakat Luas Tentang Ekonomi Makro dan Mikro
2. Mengetahui Pengertian Permintaan dan Penawaran
3. Mengetahui Hukum Permintaan dan Penawaran
4. Mengetahui Macam-macam Permintaan dan Penawaran
5. Mengetahui Faktor-Faktor yang mempengaruhi Permintaan dan Penawaran
BAB II
PEMBAHASAN
A. Teori Permintaan dan Penawaran
Teori permintaan dan penawaran (bahasa Inggris: demand and supply) dalam ilmu ekonomi menggambarkan atas hubungan-hubungan di pasar, antara para calon pembeli dan penjual dari suatu barang. Model penawaran dan permintaan digunakan untuk menentukan harga dan kuantitas yang terjual di pasar. Model ini sangat penting untuk melakukan analisis ekonomi mikro terhadap perilaku serta interaksi para pembeli dan penjual.
Ia juga digunakan sebagai titik tolak bagi berbagai model dan teori ekonomi lainnya, dan memperkirakan bahwa dalam suatu pasar yang kompetitif, harga akan berfungsi sebagai penyeimbang antara kuantitas yang diminta oleh konsumen dan kuantitas yang ditawarkan oleh produsen, sehingga terciptalah keseimbangan ekonomi antara harga dan kuantitas serta mengakomodasi kemungkian adanya faktor-faktor yang dapat mengubah keseimbangan, yang kemudian akan ditampilkan dalam bentuk terjadinya pergeseran dari permintaan atau penawaran.
1. Pengertian Permintaan (
Demand)
- Permintan adalah banyaknya jumlah barang yang diminta pada suatu pasar tertentu dengan tingkat harga tertentu pada tingkat pendapatan tertentu dan dalam periode tertentu.
- Permintaan adalah sejumlah barang yang dibeli atau diminta pada suatu harga dan waktu tertentu. Sedangkan pengertian penawaran adalah sejumlah barang yang dijual atau ditawarkan pada suatu harga dan waktu tertentu.
Contoh permintaan adalah di pasar tradisional yang bertindak sebagai permintaan adalah pembeli sedangkan penjual sebagai penawaran. Ketika terjadi transaksi antara pembeli dan penjual maka keduanya akan sepakat terjadi transaksi pada harga tertentu yang mungkin hasil dari tawar menawar yang cukup lama.
Permintaan merupakan skedul atau kurva atau fungsi yang menunjukkan jumlah barang yang diminta konsumen pada berbagai tingkat harga barang itu sendiri. Perilaku permintaan konsumen tunduk pada apabila harga suatu barang naik maka jumlah yang diminta konsumen bertambah dan sebaliknya apabila harganya turun maka jumlah yang diminta berkurang.
Permintaan mencerminkan perilaku konsumen dalam membeli barang atau jasa tertentu. Sedangkan penawaran mencerminkan perilaku produsen dalam menjual barang atau jasa tertentu. Permintaan dan penawaran bersama-sama akan membentuk pasar.
Beberapa Penentuan seseorang atau suatu masyarakat kepada suatu barang ditentukan oleh faktor-faktor, yaitu :
- Harga barang itu sendiri (Px)
- Harga barang lain ( Py)
- Pendapatan konsumen (Inc)
- Cita rasa (T)
- Iklim (S)
- Jumlah penduduk (Pop)
- Ramalan masa yang akan datang (F)
Persamaan : (Qd = F.(Px, Py, Ine,T,S, Pop,F)
2. Pengertian Penawaran (
Supply)
- Penawaran adalah banyaknya barang yang ditawarkan oleh penjual pada suatu pasar tertentu, pada periode tertentu, dan pada tingkat harga tertentu.
- Penawaran adalah jumlah keseluruhan barang atau jasa yang dijual atau jasa yang akan dijual atau ditawarkan oleh produsen pada berbagai macam tingkat harga.
Penawaran berkorelasi positif terhadap harga (P). Ini berarti bahwa semakin tinggi suatu harga produk, semakin memberikan insentif kepada produsen untuk meningkatkan produksinya dan kemudian menawarkannya kepada konsumen yang membutuhkan. Sebaliknya, semakin rendah suatu harga produk, semakin berkurang insentif bagi produsen untuk memproduksi dan menawarkannya. Hal ini disebabkan karena makin rendah suatu harga, makin kecil suatu keuntungan atau malah timbul kerugian. Sebagai suatu agen ekonomi yang rasional, produsen akan memutuskan produksinya.
Keinginan para penjual dalam menawarkan barangnya pada berbagai tingkat harga ditentukan oleh beberapa faktor yang tepenting adalah:
- Harga _ P _ Q
- Harga barang lain _ Px _ Qy
- Biaya faktor produksi _ FP _ cost _ p _ Qs
- Teknologi _ T _ cost _ p _ Qs
- Tujuan perusahaan
- Ekspektasi (ramalan)
Secara matematis
Qs = F (Px, Py, Fp, T1 ............... )
Persamaan penawaran Qs = a + bp
B. Hukum Permintaan dan Penawaran
1. Hukum permintaan (
The Law of demand)
Hukum permintaan berbunyi, “Apabila harga suatu barang atau jasa naik, maka jumlah yang diminta konsumen akan bertambah”. Pengertian permintaan haruslah didasari asumsi bahwa faktor-faktor selain harga yang juga ikut menentukan jumlah yang diminta konsumen tidak berubah (caterius paribus). Contoh : harga beras naik misalnya dari Rp.3000,00 menjadi Rp.3.500,- per kilogramnya, kemungkinan jumlah beras yang diminta akan tetap atau bahkan naik ketika pendapat konsumen meningkat.
Hukum permintaan pada hakikatnya merupakan suatu hipotesis yang menyatakan “Hubungan antara barang yang diminta dengan harga barang tersebut dimana hubungan berbanding terbalik yaitu ketika harga meningkat atau naik maka jumlah barang yang diminta akan menurun dan sebaliknya apabila harga turun jumlah barang meningkat.
Pada hakikatnya makin rendah harga suatu barang maka makin banyak permintaan terhadap barang tersebut. Sebaliknya, makin tinggi harga suatu barang maka makin sedikit permintaan terhadap barang tersebut. Dari Hypotesa di atas dapat disimpulkan, bahwa: Apabila harga suatu barang naik, maka pembeli akan mencari barang lain yang dapat digunakan sebagai pengganti barang tersebut, dan sebaliknya apabila barang tersebut turun, konsumen akan menambah pembelian terhadap barang tersebut. Kenaikan harga menyebabkan pendapatan riil konsumsn berkurang, sehingga memaksa konsumen mengurangi pembelian, terutama barang yang akan naik harganya.
a. Pengaruh Faktor bunga harga terhadap permintaan
Harga barang lain Hubungan suatu barang dengan barang lain dapat dibedakan menjadi 3 (tiga) golongan:
- Barang pengganti / barang subsidi, yaitu apabila suatu barang dapat menggantikan fungsi barang lain.
Contoh : Miyak tanah dan gas Harga barang subsidi dapat mempengaruhi permintaan terhadap barang yang digantikannya.
- Barang pelengkap / Complementer, yaitu apabila suatu barang selalu digunakan secara bersama.
Cintoh : gula dan kopi
- Barang yang tidak saling berhubungan Contoh : kapal terbang dengan sandal jepit
b. Pendapatan Konsumen
Berhubungan pendapatan konsumen akan menimbulkan perubahan permintaan terhadap berbagai jenis barang, Jenis barang dapat dibedakan menjadi 2 (Dua) macam, yaitu :
- Barang normal, yaitu barang yang permintaannya akan meningkat apabila pendapatan konsumen naik Barang mewah / barang lux, barang kebutuhan sehari-hari
- Barang inferior / barang bermutu rendah, yaitu barang yang diminta konsumen berpenghasilan rendah, apabila pendapatan konsumen tersebut naik maka permintaan terhadap barang inferior akan menurun.
c. Corak distribusi pendapatan
Jika Pemerintah menaikan pajak pada orang kaya, untuk menaikan pendapatan yang berpenghasilan rendah, maka corak permintaan barang berubah.
d. Cita rasa masyarakat / selera
Perubahan cita rasa masyarakat akan merubah permintaan terhadap suatu barang
e. Jumlah Penduduk
Pertambahan penduduk akan diakui oleh adanya kesempatan kerja. Dengan demikian akan merubah daya beli masyarakat, selanjutnya akan menambah permintaan berbagai barang.
f. Prediksi masa yang akan datang
Jika konsumen memprediksi akan adanya kenaikan harga suatu barang dimasa yang akan datang, maka permintaan terhadap barang tersebut meningkat.
Jika terjadi peningkatan status kesehatan yaitu meningkatnya angka harapan hidup di negara-negara berpendapatan rendah sebesar 0.5 tahun selama 19 tahun, katakanlah dari 59 tahun menjadi 68 tahun, maka pengaruh terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi dapat mencapai sekitar 0.5% per tahun.
2. Hukum permintaan (
The Law of Supply)
Hukum penawaran adalah suatu pernyataan yang menjelaskan tentang sifat hubungan antara harga suatu barang dan jumlah barang tersebut ditawarkan pada penjual
Hukum penawaran berbunyi, apabila harga suatu barang atau jasa naik, maka jumlah yang ditawarkan produsen akan bertambah dan sebaliknya. Apabila harga suatu barang atau jasa turun, maka jumlah yang ditawarkan produsen juga akan berkurang. Hukum penawaran tersebut Nampak bahwa antara harga dan jumlah barang yang ditawarkan produsen memiliki hubungan positif atau searah.
Hukum penawaran pada dasarnya mengatakan bahwa “Semakin tinggi harga suatu barang, semakin banyak jumlah barang tersebut akan ditawarkan oleh para penjual. Sebaliknya, makin rendah harga suatu barang, semakin sedikit jumlah barang tersebut yang ditawarkan.”
a. Pengaruh bukan harga terhadap penawaran
Harga barang lain Barang subtitusi maupun complementer akan mempengaruhi suatu barang yang dibutuhkan masyarakat. Jika harga barang import naik masyarakat cenderung untuk membeli barang buatan dalam negeri. Sehingga mendorong produsen dalam negeri untuk menambah produksinya, maka penawaran harga tersebut meningkat.
b. Biaya produksi
Jika biaya untuk memperoleh faktor produksi tinggi, maka perusahaan akan rugi, bahkan akan menutup perusahaannya, sehingga barang yang diproduksinya akan menurun.
c. Tujuan Produksi
Setiap perusahaan mempunyai tujuan memeksimumkan keuntungan, sehingga perusahaan menggunakan kapasitas produksinya secara maksimal, tetapi menggunakan pada tinggkat kapasitas yang memaksimumkan keuntungan sehingga penawaran akan kecil.
d. Tingkat Teknologi
Kemajuan teknologi akan mengakibatkan:
- Produksi akan bertambah cepat
- Biaya produksi semakin rendah, keuntungan akan bertambah. Dengan demikian kemajuan teknologi cenderung menaikan penawaran
C. Macam-macam Permintaan dan Penawaran
1. Macam-Macam Permintaan
a. Harga permintaan (
Price elasticity of demand)
Price elasticity of demand (harga permintaan) Adalah mengukur perubahan jumlah barang yang diminta yang diakibatkan oleh perubahan harga barang tersebut.
b. Pendapatan dari permintaan (
Income Elasticity Of Demand)
Adalah mengukur perubahan jumlah barang yang diminta yang diakibatkan oleh perubahan pendapatan konsumen
c.
Elastisitas silang dari permintaan (Cross Elasticity of Deman)
Adalah mengukur perubahan jumlah X yang diminta yang diakibatkan oleh perubahan harga barang Y.
Permintaan mencerminkan pola perilaku konsumen dalam membeli suatu jenis barang atau jasa tertentu. Artinya : Keinginan saja tidak mencukupi syarat untuk terciptanya permintaan. Untuk mendapatkan suatu barang, konsumen harus memiliki cukup uang untuk membeli barang tersebut.
Permintaan terdiri dari Permintaan efektif dan Permintaan absolute. Permintaan efektif atau permintaan potensial adalah permintaan terhadap suatu barang yang disertai dengan kemampuan untuk membayar harga barang tersebut . Sedangkan Permintaan absolute adalah permintaan terhadap suatu barang yang tidak disertai dengan kemampuan untuk membayar harga barang tersebut.
Permintaan juga dapat dibedakan menjadi dua yaitu :
1. Permintaan individu : yaitu permintaan yang dilakukan oleh seseorang konsumen dan
2. Permintaan pasar : yaitu penjumlahan dari permintaan-permintaan secara individu.
Berdasarkan nilainya, elastisitas permintaan dapat dibedakan menjadi lima, yaitu permintaan inelastis sempurna, inelastis, elastis uniter, elastis, dan elastis sempurna. Elastisitas Silang (Cross Elasticity). Elastisitas silang menunjukkan hubungan antara jumlah barang yang diminta terhadap perubahan harga barang lain yang mempunyai hubungan dengan barang tersebut. Hubungan tersebut dapat bersifat pengganti, dapat pula bersifat pelengkap. Terdapat tiga macam respons prubahan permintaan suatu barang (misal barang A) karena perubahan harga barang lain (barang B), yaitu: positif, negatif, dan nol.
a. Elastisitas silang positif
Peningkatan harga barang A menyebabkan peningkatan jumlah permintaan barang B. Sebagai contoh, peningkatan harga kopi meningkatkan permintaan terhadap teh. Kopi dan teh merupakan dua barang yang dapat saling menggantikan (barang substitutif).
b. Elastisitas silang negatif
Peningkatan harga barang A mengakibatkan turunnya permintaan barang B. Sebagai contoh, peningkatan harga bensin mengakibatkan penurunan permintaan terhadap kendaraan bermotor. Kedua barang tersebut bersifat komplementer (pelengkap).
c. Elastisitas silang nol
Peningkatan harga barang A tidak akan mengakibatkan perubahan permintaan barang B. Dalam kaus semacam ini, kedua macam barang tidak saling berkaitan. Sebagai contoh, kenaikan harga kopi tidak akan berpengaruh terhadap permintaan kendaraan bermotor.
2. Macam-Macam Penawaran
Penawaran mencerminkan pola perilaku produsen dalam menjual suatu jenis atau jasa tertentu. Penawaran dapat dibedakan menjadi dua yaitu : penawaran individual dan penawaran pasar. Untuk lebih mudah memahami konsep penawaran pasar, kalian pahami contoh daftar penawaran berikut ini. Misalkan dipasar beras ada 20 orang penjual.
D. Faktor-Faktor yang mempengaruhi Permintaan dan Penawaran
1. Faktor-Faktor yang mempengaruhi Permintaan
a) Perilaku konsumen / selera konsumen
Saat ini handphone blackberry sedang tren dan banyak yang beli, tetapi beberapa tahun mendatang mungkin blackberry sudah dianggap kuno.
b) Ketersediaan dan harga barang sejenis pengganti dan pelengkap
Jika roti tawar tidak ada atau harganya sangat mahal maka meises, selai dan margarin akan turun permintaannya.
c) Pendapatan / penghasilan konsumen
Orang yang punya gaji dan tunjangan besar dia dapat membeli banyak barang yang dia inginkan, tetapi jika pendapatannya rendah maka seseorang mungkin akan mengirit pemakaian barang yang dibelinya agar jarang beli.
d) Perkiraan harga dimasa depan
Barang yang harganya diperkirakan akan naik, maka orang akan menimbun atau membeli ketika harganya masih rendah misalnya seperti bbm/bensin.
e) Banyaknya/intensitas kebutuhan konsumen
Ketika flu burung dan flu babi sedang menggila, produk masker pelindung akan sangat laris. Pada bulan puasa (ramadhan) permintaan belewah, timun suri, cincau, sirup, es batu, kurma, dan lain sebagainya akan sangat tinggi dibandingkan bulan lainnya.
Asumsi cateris paribus mengandung arti bahwa faktor selain harga barang itu sendiri (yang juga menentukan jumlah barang yang diminta) tidak berubah. Apabila faktor-faktor yang dianggap tetap tersebut berubah, maka akan menyebabkan terjadinya perubahan permintaan. Pergeseran kurva permintaan mengandung dua pengertian pertama, pergerakan sepanjang kurva permintaan dan pengertian kedua pergeseran seluruh kurva permintaan. Maka pergeseran kurva permintaan yang kedua adalah pergeseran seluruh kurva permintaan.
Faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan terjadinya perubahan permintaan tersebut, yakni:
a) Intensitas kebutuhan
Intensitas kebutuhan konsumen memengaruhi jumlah barang yang diminta.
Contoh : meningkatnya intensitas kebutuhan akan komputer cenderung menyebabkan jumlah komputer yang diminta meningkat dan sebaliknya.
b) Selerah konsumen
Tingginya selera konsumen terhadap suatu barang akan menyebabkan jumlah barang yang dibeli cenderung meningkat dan sebaliknya. Semakin mendesaknya kebutuhan alat komunikasi membuat selera kalangan anak muda terhadap kepemilikan telepon selular meningkat.
c) Pendapatan konsumen
Pendapatan konsumen turut menentukan jumlah barang yang diminta. Akibatnya konsumen akan mampu membeli barang dalam jumlah yang lebih besar atau sebaliknya. Contoh : menjelang Idul Fitri, biasanya para pegawai akan menerima tambahan pendapatan dalam bentuk tunjangan hari raya (THR).
d) Harga barang pengganti
Harga barang pengganti turut menentukan jumlah yang diminta konsumen. Berkurangnya jumlah barang yang diminta disebabkan karena konsumen lebih memilih membeli barang pengganti yang harganya menjadi relatif lebih murah.
e) Harga barang pelengkap
Harga barang pelengkap turut menentukan jumlah yang diminta konsumen. Contoh : mobil, dan bensin merupakan dua barang yang harus digunakan bersama-sama.
f) Perkiraan harga dimasa yang akan datang
Perkiraan konsumen terkait dengan harga barang dimasa yang akan datang turut menentukan jumlah barang yang diminta konsumen. Contoh, dugaan bahwa bensin akan naik, maka pada harga bensin hari ini yaitu sebesar Rp.5.000,- per liter.
g) Jumlah Konsumen
Jumlah konsumen turut menentukan jumlah barang yang diminta konsumen, contoh : peristiwa kelahiran bayi akan cenderung menyebabkan jumlah produk-produk perawatan bayi yang diminta bertambah, karena konsumen yang menggunakan produk-produk tersebut bertambah.
2. Faktor-Faktor yang mempengaruhi Penawaran
Faktor-faktor yang semula dianggap tetap tersebut berubah, maka akan menyebabkan terjadinya perubahan penawaran. Perubahan penawaran dicerminkan dari pergeseran kurva penawaran jika kurva penawaran bergeser ke kanan berarti penawaran bertambah. Maka pergeseran kurva penawaran yang kedua adalah pergeseran seluruh kurva penawaran.
1. Harga Bahan Baku
Harga bahan baku yang digunakan dalam proses produksi, menentukan besarnya biaya produksi.
2. Penggunaan Teknologi
Pemakaian teknologi baru dalam memproduksi suatu barang akan mengakibatkan biaya produksi kurang tersebut lebih murah.
BAB III
PENUTUP
A. KESIMPULAN
1. demand (permintaan) dan supply (penawaran) saling terkait satu sama lain antara pembeli dan penjual di pasar, untuk membentuk satuan harga dan kuantitas dalam setiap traansaksi perdagangan.
2. Dalam konsep mikro ekonomi ada 3 yang perlu dipahami yaitu:
a. Masalah kelangkaan
b. Kebutuhan Masyarakat
c. Stabilitas harga
3. Permintaan adalah sejumlah barang yang dibeli atau diminta pada suatu harga dan waktu tertentu. Sedangkan pengertian penawaran adalah sejumlah barang yang dijual atau ditawarkan pada suatu harga dan waktu tertentu.
4. Penawaran adalah jumlah keseluruhan barang atau jasa yang dijual atau jasa yang akan dijual atau ditawarkan oleh produsen pada berbagai macam tingkat harga.
5. Hukum permintaan pada hakikatnya adalah apabila harga suatu barang naik, maka pembeli akan mencari barang lain sebagai pengganti barang tersebut, dan sebaliknya apabila barang tersebut turun, konsumen akan menambah pembelian terhadap barang tersebut.
6. Hukum penawaran pada dasarnya mengatakan bahwa “Semakin tinggi harga suatu barang, semakin banyak jumlah barang akan ditawarkan oleh para penjual. Sebaliknya, makin rendah harga suatu barang, semakin sedikit jumlah barang tersebut yang ditawarkan.”
7. Permintaan terdiri dari : Harga permintaan (Price elasticity of demand), Pendapatan dari permintaan (Income Elasticity Of Demand) dan Cross Elasticity of Demand sedangkan penawaran terdiri dari penawaran individual dan penawaran pasar.
8. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan adalah Perilaku konsumen/ selera konsumen, Ketersediaan dan harga barang, Pendapatan/ penghasilan konsumen, Perkiraan harga dimasa depan, Banyaknya/intensitas kebutuhan konsumen sedangkan faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan terdiri dari faktor Harga Bahan Baku dan Teknologi.
B. SARAN
Jika ada kesalahan dan kekeliruan pada makalah ini maka kami mohon kritik maupun saran yang sifatnya membangun dari pembaca demi kesempurnaan kedepannya.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Sumber: Wahana, Jaka dan Kirbrandoko, 1995, Pengantar Mikro Ekonomi Jilid I, Terjemahan Cetakan pertama, Binarupa Aksara, Jakarta
Nopirin, Pengantar Ilmu Ekonomi Makro dan Mikro, BPFE, Yogyakarta, 2000
Sadono Sukirno, Pengantar Teori Ekonomi Mikro, Rajawali Pers, Jakarta, 2002
Tri Kunawangsih Pracoyo, Antyo Pracoyo, Aspek Dasar Ekonomi Mikro, PT Grasindo, Jakarta, 2006
http://id.wikipedia.org - Penawaran dan permintaan
http://one.indoskripsi.com - artikel skripsi tentang masalah pokok ekonomi
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