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PENGOLAHAN BAHAN GALIAN

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pabrik mineral benefisiasi mineral beneficiation


PENDAHULUAN

Indonesia memiliki potensi dan cadangan bahan galian yang cukup besar dan menyebar hampir merata di seluruh wilayah.Yang dimaksud dengan bahan galian adalah bijih (ore), mineral industri (industrial minerals) atau bahan galian golongan C dan batubara (coal).
Pengolahan bahan galian (mineral beneficiation/mineral processing/mineral dressing) adalah suatu prosses pengolahan dengan memanfaatka perbedaan-perbedaan sifat fisik bahan galian untuk memperoleh produkta bahan galian yang bersangkutan.Khusus untuk batubara, proses pengolahan itu disebut dengan pencucian batubara( coal washing) atau preparasi batubara (coal preparation).
Untuk saat ini umumnya endapan bahan galian yang ditemukan dialam sudah jarang mempunyai mutu atau kadar mineral berharga yang tinggi dan siap utntuk dilebur atau dimanfaatkan. Oleh karena sebab itu bahan galian tersebut perlu menjalani pengolahan bahan galian(PBG) agar mutu/kadarnya dapat ditingkatkan sampai memenuhi kriteria atau peleburan pemanasan.

Keuntungan yang bisa diperoleh dari proses PBG tersebut antara lain adalah :
  1. Mengurangi ongkos angkut tiap ton logam dari lokasi penambangan ke pabrik pengolahan, karena sebagian mineral tidak berharga (waste mineral) telah terbuang selama proses pengolahan dan kadar bijih sudah ditingkatkan.
  2. Mengurahi ongkos peleburan biaya peleburan tiap ton logam yang dihasilkan, sebab dalam peleburan tonase logan yang dihasilkan lebih banyak (dalam waktu yang sama) bila dibandingkan dengan peleburan tanpa diawali dengan Pengolahan Bahan Galian.
  3. Mengurangi kehilangan (losses) logam berharga pada saat peleburan /Mengurangi jumlah Flux yang ditambahkan dalam peleburan serta mengurangi metal yang hilang bersama Slag.
Peroses pemisahan(pengolahan) secara fisik jauh lebih sederhana dan menguntungkan daripada proses pemisahan secara kimia.
    Metalurgi adalah (metallurgy) adalah ilmu yang mempelajari cara-cara untuk memperoleh logam(metal) melalui proses fisika dan kimia secara, mempelajari cara-cara memperbaiki sifat-sifat fisik dan kimia logam murni maupun paduannya (Alloy).
    Metalurgi ada 2 (dua) macam kelompok utama yaitu:
    1. Metalurgi ekstraktif(Extractive Metallurgy)
    a) Metalurgi fisik dan ilmu bahan ( physical meallurgy and material science).

    Sedangkan Teknik Metalurgi dan Material adalah bidang ilmu keteknikan yang membahas tentang proses pengolahan mineral (termasuk pengolahan batubara), proses ekstraksi logam dan pembuatan paduan, hubungan perilaku sifat mekanik logam dengan strukturnya, proses penguatan logam serta fenomena-fenomena kegagalan dan degradasi logam. Sedangkan Teknik Material adalah bidang ilmu keteknikan yang membahas tentang sifat-sifat bahan dan hubungan antara struktur bahan dan sifatnya serta mempelajari tentang desain berbagai jenis material (logam, plastik, keramik, komposit) untuk aplikasi tertentu.

    menurut Krik-Othemer metalurgi ekstaraktif adalah ilmu yang mempelajari cara-cara pengambilan (ekstraksi) logam dari bijih (ore = naturally occuring compounds) dan proses pemurniannya, sehingga sesuai dengan syarat-syarat komersial.

    Metalurgi ekstraktif dibagi menjadi 3 (tiga) jalur, yaitu :
    1. Piro metalurgi (pyro metallurgy) yang dalam proses ekstraksinya menggunakan energi panas yang tinggi (bisa sampai 2.000oC).
    2. Hidro metalurgi (hydro metallurgy) yang menggunakan larutan kimia atau reagen organik untuk “menangkap” logamnya.
    3. Elektro metalurgi (electro metallurgy) yang memanfaatkan teknik elektro-kimia (antar lain elektrolisis) untuk memperoleh logamnya.Perbedaan utama antara PBG dengan ekstraktif metalurgi adalah :
    • Pada PBG : – bijih / mineral à tetap mineral
    - kadar logam rendah à kadar logam tinggi
    - sifat-sifat fisik dan kimiaà tak berubah
    • Pada ekstraktif metalurgi : – bijih / mineral à jadi logam (metal)
    - sifat-sifat fisik dan kimiaà berubah

    2. PENGOLAHAN BAHAN GALIAN (PBG)

    Tahap-tahap utama dalam proses PBG terdiri dari (lihat Lampiran A) :

    2.1. KOMINUSI ATAU REDUKSI UKURAN (COMMINUTION)

    Kominusi atau pengecilan ukuran merupakan tahap awal dalam proses PBG yang bertujuan untuk :
    • Membebaskan / meliberasi (to liberate) mineral berharga dari material pengotornya.
    • Menghasilkan ukuran dan bentuk partikel yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan pada proses berikutnya.
    • Memperluas permukaan partikel agar dapat mempercepat kontak dengan zat lain, misalnya reagen flotasi.
    Kominusi ada 2 (dua) macam, yaitu :
    1. Peremukan / pemecahan (crushing)
    2. Penggerusan / penghalusan (grinding)
    Disamping itu kominusi, baik peremukan maupun penggerusan, bisa terdiri dari beberapa tahap, yaitu :
    - Tahap pertama / primer (primary stage)
    - Tahap kedua / sekunder (secondary stage)
    - Tahap ketiga / tersier (tertiary stage)
    - Kadang-kadang ada tahap keempat / kwarter (quaternary stage)

    2.1.1. Peremukan / Pemecahan (Crushing)
    Peremukan adalah proses reduksi ukuran dari bahan galian / bijih yang langsung dari tambang (ROM = run of mine) dan berukuran besar-besar (diameter sekitar 100 cm) menjadi ukuran 20-25 cm bahkan bisa sampai ukuran 2,5 cm.
    Peralatan yang dipakai antara lain adalah :
    1. Jaw crusher
    2. Gyratory crusher
    3. Cone crusher
    4. Roll crusher
    5. Impact crusher
    6. Rotary breaker
    7. Hammer mill
    2.1.2. Penggerusan / Penghalusan (Grinding)
    Penggerusan adalah proses lanjutan pengecilan ukuran dari yang sudah berukuran 2,5 cm menjadi ukuran yang lebih halus. Pada proses penggerusan dibutuhkan media penggerusan yang antara lain terdiri dari :
    1. Bola-bola baja atau keramik (steel or ceramic balls).
    2. Batang-batang baja (steel rods).
    3. Campuran bola-bola baja dan bahan galian atau bijihnya sendiri yang disebut semi autagenous mill (SAG).
    4. Tanpa media penggerus, hanya bahan galian atau bijihnya yang saling menggerus dan disebut autogenous mill.
    Peralatan penggerusan yang dipergunakan adalah :
    1. Ball mill dengan media penggerus berupa bola-bola baja atau keramik.
    2. Rod mill dengan media penggerus berupa batang-batang baja.
    3. Semi autogenous mill (SAG) bila media penggerusnya sebagian adalah bahan galian atau bijihnya sendiri.
    4. Autogenous mill bila media penggerusnya adalah bahan galian atau bijihnya sendiri. 
    2.2. PEMISAHAN BERDASARKAN UKURAN (SIZING)

    Setelah bahan galian atau bijih diremuk dan digerus, maka akan diperoleh bermacam-macam ukuran partikel. Oleh sebab itu harus dilakukan pemisahan berdasarkan ukuran partikel agar sesuai dengan ukuran yang dibutuhkan pada proses pengolahan yang berikutnya.

    2.2.1. Pengayakan / Penyaringan (Screening / Sieving)

    Pengayakan atau penyaringan adalah proses pemisahan secara mekanik berdasarkan perbedaan ukuran partikel. Pengayakan (screening) dipakai dalam skala industri, sedangkan penyaringan (sieving) dipakai untuk skala laboratorium.

    Produk dari proses pengayakan/penyaringan ada 2 (dua), yaitu :

    - Ukuran lebih besar daripada ukuran lubang-lubang ayakan (oversize).
    - Ukuran yang lebih kecil daripada ukuran lubang-lubang ayakan (undersize).

    Saringan (sieve) yang sering dipakai di laboratorium adalah :
    1. Hand sieve
    2. Vibrating sieve series / Tyler vibrating sive
    3. Sieve shaker / rotap
    4. Wet and dry sieving
    Sedangkan ayakan (screen) yang berskala industri antara lain :
    1. Stationary grizzly
    2. Roll grizzly
    3. Sieve bend
    4. Revolving screen
    5. Vibrating screen (single deck, double deck, triple deck, etc.)
    6. Shaking screen
    7. Rotary shifter
    2.2.2. Klasifikasi (Classification)

    Klasifikasi adalah proses pemisahan partikel berdasarkan kecepatan pengendapannya dalam suatu media (udara atau air). Klasifikasi dilakukan dalam suatu alat yang disebut classifier.

    Produk dari proses klasifikasi ada 2 (dua), yaitu :

    - Produk yang berukuran kecil/halus (slimes) mengalir di bagian atas disebut overflow.
    - Produk yang berukuran lebih besar/kasar (sand) mengendap di bagian bawah (dasar) disebut underflow.

    Proses pemisahan dalam classifier dapat terjadi dalam tiga cara (concept), yaitu :
    1. Partition concept
    2. Tapping concept
    3. Rein concept
    Hal ini dapat berlangsung apabila sejumlah partikel dengan bermacam-macam ukuran jatuh bebas di dalam suatu media atau fluida (udara atau air), maka setiap partikel akan menerima gaya berat dan gaya gesek dari media. Pada saat kecepatan gerak partikel menjadi rendah (tenang/laminer), ukuran partikel yang besar-besar mengendap lebih dahulu, kemudian diikuti oleh ukuran-ukuran yang lebih kecil, sedang yang terhalus (antara lain slimes) akan tidak sempat mengendap.

    Peralatan yang umum dipakai dalam proses klasifikasi adalah :
    1. Scrubber
    2. Log washer
    3. Sloping tank classifier (rake, spiral & drag)
    4. Hydraulic bowl classifier
    5. Hydraulic clindrical tank classifier
    6. Hydraulic cone classifier
    7. Counter current classifier
    8. Pocket classifier
    9. Hydrocyclone
    10. Air separator
    11. Solid bowl centrifuge
    12. Elutriator

    2.3. PENINGKATAN KADAR ATAU KONSENTRASI (CONCENTRATION)

    Agar bahan galian yang mutu atau kadarnya rendah (marginal) dapat diolah lebih lanjut, yaitu diambil (di-ekstrak) logamnya, maka kadar bahan galian itu harus ditingkatkan dengan proses konsentrasi.
    Sifat-sifat fisik mineral yang dapat dimanfaatkan dalam proses konsentrasi adalah :

    - Perbedaan berat jenis atau kerapatan untuk proses konsentrasi gravitasi dan media berat.
    - Perbedaan sifat kelistrikan untuk proses konsentrasi elektrostatik.
    - Perbedaan sifat kemagnetan untuk proses konsentrasi magnetik.
    - Perbedaan sifat permukaan partikel untuk proses flotasi.

    Proses peningkatan kadar itu ada bermacam-macam, antara lain :

    2.3.1. Pemilahan (Sorting)

    Bila ukuran bongkahnya cukup besar, maka pemisahan dilakukan dengan tangan (manual), artinya yang terlihat bukan mineral berharga dipisahkan untuk dibuang.

    2.3.2. Konsentrasi Gravitasi (Gravity Concentration)

    Yaitu pemisahan mineral berdasarkan perbedaan berat jenis dalam suatu media fluida, jadi sebenarnya juga memanfaatkan perbedaan kecepatan pengendapan mineral-mineral yang ada.

    Ada 3 (tiga) cara pemisahan secara gravitasi bila dilihat dari segi gerakan fluidanya, yaitu :
    - Fluida tenang, contoh dense medium separation (DMS) atau heavy medium separation (HMS).
    - Aliran fluida horisontal, contoh sluice box, shaking table dan spiral concentration.
    - Aliran fluida vertikal, contoh jengkek (jig).

    Bila jumlah partikel (mineral) di dalam fluida relatif sedikit, maka akan terjadi pengendapan bebas (free settling).
    Tetapi bila jumlah partikel banyak gerakannya akan terhambat sehingga terbentuk stratifikasi yang terdiri dari 3 (tiga) tahap sebagai berikut :
    1. Hindered settling classification ; klasifikasi pengendapannya terhalang.
    2. Differential acceleration pada awal pengendapan ; artinya partikel yang berat mengendap lebih dahulu. 
    3. Consolidation trickling pada akhir pengendapan ; partikel-partikel kecil berusaha mengatur diri di antara partikel-partikel besar sesuai dengan berat jenisnya.
    Produk dari proses konsentrasi gravitasi ada 3 (tiga), yaitu :
    - Konsentrat (concentrate) yang terdiri dari kumpulan mineral berharga dengan kadar tinggi.
    - Amang (middling) yaitu konsentrat yang masih kotor.
    - Ampas (tailing) yang terdiri dari mineral-mineral pengotor yang harus dibuang.

    Peralatan konsentrasi gravitasi yang banyak dipakai adalah :
    1. Jengkek (jig) dengan bermacam-macam rekacipta (design).
    2. Meja goyang (shaking table).
    3. Konsentrator spiral (Humprey spiral concentrator).
    4. Palong / sakan (sluice box).
    2.3.3. Konsentrasi dengan Media Berat (Dense/Heavy Medium Separation)

    Merupakan proses konsentrasi yang bertujuan untuk memisahkan mineral-mineral berharga yang lebih berat dari pengotornya yang terdiri dari mineral-mineral ringan dengan menggunakan medium pemisah yang berat jenisnya lebih besar dari air (berat jenisnya > 1).

    Produk dari proses konsentrasi ini adalah :
    -    Endapan (sink) yang terdiri dari mineral-mineral berharga yang berat.
    -    Apungan (float) yang terdiri dari mineral-mineral pengotor yang ringan.

    Media pemisah yang pernah dipakai antara lain :
    - Air + magnetit halus dengan kerapatan 1,25 – 2,20 ton/m3.
    - Air + ferrosilikon dengan kerapatan 2,90 – 3,40 ton/m3.
    - Air + magnetit + ferrosilikon dengan kerapatan 2,20 – 2,90.
    - Larutan berat seperti tetra bromo ethana (b.j. = 2,96), bromoform (b.j. = 2,85) dan methylene jodida (b.j. = 3,32). Tetapi larutan berat ini harganya mahal, oleh sebab itu hanya dipakai untuk percobaan-percobaan di laboratorium.
    Peralatan yang biasa dipakai adalah gravity dense/heavy medium separators yang berdasarkan bentuknya ada 2 (dua) macam, yaitu :
    1. Drum separator karena bentuknya silindris.
    2. Cone separator karena bentuknya seperti corongan.

    2.3.4.  Konsentrasi Elektrostatik (Electrostatic Concentration)
    Merupakan proses konsentrasi dengan memanfaatkan perbedaan sifat konduktor (mudah menghantarkan arus listrik) dan non-konduktor (nir konduktor) dari mineral.
    Kendala proses konsentrasi ini adalah :
    -    Hanya sesuai untuk proses konsentrasi dengan jumlah umpan yang tidak terlalu besar.
    -    Karena prosesnya harus kering, maka timbul masalah dengan debu yang berterbangan.
    Mineral-mineral yang bersifat konduktor antara lain adalah :
    -    Magnetit (Fe3 O4)
    -    Kasiterit (Sn O2)
    -    Ilmenit (Fe Ti O3)
    -    Molibdenit (Mo S2)
    -    Wolframit [(Fe, M) WO4]
    -    Galena (Pb S)
    -    Pirit (Fe S2)
    Produk dari proses konsentrasi ini adalah :
    -    Mineral-mineral konduktor sebagai konsentrat.
    -    Mineral-mineral non-konduktor sebagai ampas (tailing).
    Peralatan yang biasa dipakai adalah :
    1. Electrodynamic separator (high tension separator).
    2. Electrostatic separator yang terdiri dari :
    plate electrostatic separator
    screen electrostatic separator


    2.3.5.  Konsentrasi Magnetik (Magnetic Concentration)
    Adalah proses konsentrasi yang memanfaatkan perbedaan sifat kemagnetan (magnetic susceptibility) yang dimiliki mineral. Sifat kemagnetan bahan galian ada 3 (tiga) macam, yaitu :
    -    Ferromagnetic, yaitu bahan galian (mineral) yang sangat kuat untuk ditarik oleh medan magnet. Misalnya magnetit (Fe3 O4).
    -    Paramagnetic, yaitu bahan galian yang dapat tertarik oleh medan magnet. Contohnya hematit (Fe2 O3), ilmenit (Se Ti O3) dan pyrhotit (Fe S).
    -    Diamagnetic, yaitu bahan galian yang tak tertarik oleh medan magnet. Misalnya : kwarsa (Si O2) dan feldspar [(Na, K, Al) Si3 O8].
    Jadi produk dari proses konsentrasi yang berlangsung basah ini adalah :
    -    Mineral-mineral magnetik sebagai konsentrat.
    -    Mineral-mineral non-magnetik sebagai ampas (tailing).
    Peralatan yang dipakai disebut magnetic separator yang terdiri dari :
    1. Induced roll dry magnetic separator.
    2. Wet drum low intensity magnetic separator yang arah aliran dapat :
    concurrent
    countercurrent
    counter rotation

    Sedang letak magnetnya bisa :
    -    Suspended magnets
    -    Suspended magnets with continuous removal
    -    Cobbing drum


    2.3.6.  Konsentrasi Secara Flotasi (Flotation Concentration)
    Merupakan proses konsentrasi berdasarkan sifat “senang terhadap udara” atau “takut terhadap air” (hydrophobic). Pada umumnya mineral-mineral oksida dan sulfida akan tenggelam bila dicelupkan ke dalam air, karena permukaan mineral-mineral itu bersifat “suka akan air” (hydrophilic). Tetapi beberapa mineral sulfida, antara lain kalkopirit (Cu Fe S2), galena (Pb S), dan sfalerit (Zn S) mudah diubah sifat permukaannya dari suka air menjadi suka udara dengan menambahkan reagen yang terdiri dari senyawa hidrokarbon. Sejumlah reagen kimia yang sering digunakan dalam proses flotasi adalah :
    1. Pembuih (frother) yang berfungsi sebagai pen-stabil gelembung-gelembung udara. Misalnya : methyl isobuthyl carbinol (MIBC), minyak pinus, dan terpentin.
    2. Kolektor / pengumpul (collector) yang bisa mengubah sifat permukaan mineral yang semula suka air menjadi suka udara. Contohnya : xanthate, thiocarbonilid, asam oleik, dll.
    3. Penekan / pencegah (depresant) yang berguna untuk mencegah agar mineral pengotor tidak ikut menempel pada udara dan ikut terapung. Misalnya : Zn SO4 untuk menekan Zn S.
    4. Pengatur keasaman (pH regulator) yang berfungsi untuk mengatur tingkat keasaman proses flotasi. Misalnya : HCl, HNO3, Ca (OH)3, NH4 OH, dll.
    Produk flotasi ada 3 (tiga) macam, yaitu :
    -    Konsentrat (concentrate) yang berupa mineral-mineral yang ikut terapung (mineral-mineral apungan) dengan gelembung-gelembung udara.
    -    Amang (middling) yang merupakan mineral-mineral apungan yang masih mengandung banyak mineral-mineral pengotor.
    -    Ampas (tailing) yang tenggelam terdiri dari mineral-mineral pengotor.
    Peralatan yang biasa dipakai adalah :
    1. Mechanical flotation yang terdiri dari berbagai variasi antara lain :
    Agitair cell
    Denver cell
    Krupp cell
    Outokumpu cell
    Wemco-Fagregren cell
    1. Pneumatic flotation yang terdiri dari variasi :
    Column cell
    Cyclo cell
    Davcra cell
    Flotaire cell

    2.4.  PENGURANGAN KADAR AIR / PENGAWA-AIRAN (DEWATERING)
    Kegiatan ini bertujuan untuk mengurangi kandungan air yang ada pada konsentrat yang diperoleh dengan proses basah, misalnya proses konsentrasi gravitasi dan flotasi.
    Cara-cara pengawa-airan ini ada 3 (tiga), yaitu :

    2.4.1.  Cara Pengentalan / Pemekatan (Thickening)
    Konsentrat yang berupa lumpur dimasukkan ke dalam bejana bulat. Bagian yang pekat mengendap ke bawah disebut underflow, sedangkan bagian yang encer atau airnya mengalir di bagian atas disebut overflow. Kedua produk itu dikeluarkan secara terus menerus (continuous).
    Peralatan yang biasa dipakai adalah :
    1. Rake thickener.
    2. Deep cone thickener.
    3. Free flow thickener.

    2.4.2.  Cara Penapisan / Pengawa-airan (Filtration)
    Dengan cara pengentalan kadar airnya masih cukup tinggi, maka bagian yang pekat dari pengentalan dimasukkan ke penapis yang disertai dengan pengisapan, sehingga jumlah air yang terisap akan banyak. Dengan demikian akan dapat dipisahkan padatan dari airnya.
    Peralatan yang dipakai adalah :
    1. Vacuum (suction) filters yang terdiri dari :
    -    intermitten, misalnya Moore leaf filter.
    -    Continuous ada beberapa tipe, yaitu :
    • bentuk silindris / tromol (drum type), misalnya : Oliver filter, Dorrco filter.
    • bentuk cakram (disk type) berputar, contohnya : American filter.
    • bentuk lembaran berputar (revolving leaf type), contohnya : Oliver filter.
    • bentuk meja (desk type), misalnya : Caldecott sand table filter.
    1. Pressure filter, misalnya :
    -    Merrill plate and frame filter
    -    Kelly pressure filter
    -    Burt revolving filter

    2.4.3.  Pengeringan (Drying)
    Yaitu proses untuk membuang seluruh kandung air dari padatan yang berasal dari konsentrat dengan cara penguapan (evaporization/evaporation).
    Peralatan atau cara yang dipakai ada bermacam-macam, yaitu :
    1. Hearth type drying/air dried/air baked, yaitu pengeringan yang dilakukan di atas lantai oleh sinar matahari dan harus sering diaduk (dibolak-balik).
    2. Shaft drier, ada dua macam, yaitu :
    -    tower drier, material (mineral) yang basah dijatuhkan di dalam saluran silindris vertikal yang dialiri udara panas (80o – 100o).
    -    rotary drier, material yang basah dialirkan ke dalam silinder panjang yang diputar pada posisi agak miring dan dialiri udara panas yang berlawanan arah.
    1. Film type drier (atmospheric drum drier) ; silinder baja yang di dalamnya dialiri uap air (steam). Jarang dipakai.
    2. Spray drier, material halus yang basah dan disemburkan ke dalam ruangan panas ; material yang kering akan terkumpul di bagian bawah ruangan. Cara ini juga jarang dipakai.

    2.5.  PENANGANAN MATERIAL (MATERIAL HANDLING)
    Bahan galian (mineral/bijih) yang mengalami PBG harus ditangani dengan cepat dan seksama, baik yang berupa konsentrat basah dan kering maupun yang berbentuk ampas (tailing).

    2.5.1.  Penanganan Material Padat Kering (Dry Solid Handling)
    Bila masih berupa bahan galian hasil penambangan (ROM), maka harus ditumpuk di tempat yang sudah ditentukan yang di sekelilingnya telah dilengkapi dengan saluran penyaliran (drainage system). Tetapi jika sudah berupa konsentrat, maka harus disimpan di dalam gudang yang tertutup sebelum sempat diproses lebih lanjut.

    2.5.2.  Penanganan Lumpur (Slurry Handling)
    Bila lumpur itu sudah mengandung mineral berharga yang kadarnya tinggi, maka dapat segera dimasukkan ke pemekat (thickener) atau penapis (filter). Jika masih agak kotor (middling), maka harus diproses dengan alat khusus yang sesuai.

    2.5.3.  Penanganan / Pembuangan Ampas (Tailing Disposal)
    Kegiatan ini yang paling sulit penanganannya karena :
    1. Jumlahnya (volumenya) sangat banyak, antara 70% – 90% dari material yang ditambang.
    2. Kadang-kadang mengandung bahan berbahaya dan beracun (B-3).
    3. Sulit mencarikan lahan yang cocok untuk menimbun ampas bila metode penambangan timbun-balik (back fill mining method) tak dapat segera dilakukan, sehingga kadang-kadang harus dibuatkan kolam pengendap. Oleh sebab itu pembuangan ampas ini seringkali menjadi komponen kegiatan penambangan yang meminta pemikiran khusus sepanjang umur tambang.
    3. METALURGI EKSTRAKTIF (EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY) DAN PEMURNIAN (REFINING)
    Tahapan proses (process aims) pada metalurgi ekstraktif (lihat Lampiran B, C dan D) adalah :
    1. Pemisahan (separation), yaitu pembuangan unsur, campuran (compounds) atau material yang tidak diinginkan dari bijih (sumber metal = source of metal).
    2. Pembentukan campuran (compound foramtion), yaitu cara memproduksi material yang secara struktur dan sifat-sifat kimianya berbeda dari bijihnya (sumbernya).
    3. Pengambilan/produksi metal (metal production), yaitu cara-cara memperoleh metal yang belum murni.
    1. Pemurnian metal (metal purification), yaitu pembersihan, metal yang belum murni (membuang unsur-unsur pengotor dari metal yang belum murni), sehingga diperoleh metal murni.
    Metalurgi ekstraktif terdiri dari :
    1. Pirometalurgi (pyrometallurgy), menggunakan energi panas sampai 2.000o C.
    2. Hidrometalurgi (hydrometallurgy), menggunakan larutan dan reagen organik.
    3. Elektrometalurgi (electrometallurgy), memanfaatkan teknik elektro-kimia.
    3.1.  PIROMETALURGI (PYROMETALLURGY)
    Suatu proses ekstraksi metal dengan memakai energi panas. Suhu yang dicapai ada yang hanya 50o – 250o C (proses Mond untuk pemurnian nikel), tetapi ada yang mencapai 2.000o C (proses pembuatan paduan baja). Yang umum dipakai hanya berkisar 500o – 1.600o C ; pada suhu tersebut kebanyakan metal atau paduan metal sudah dalam fase cair bahkan kadang-kadang dalam fase gas.
    Umpan yang baik adalah konsentrat dengan kadar metal yang tinggi agar dapat mengurangi pemakaian energi panas. Penghematan energi panas dapat juga dilakukan dengan memilih dan memanfaatkan reaksi kimia eksotermik (exothermic).
    Sumber energi panas dapat berasal dari :
    1. Energi kimia (chemical energy = reaksi kimia eksotermik).
    2. Bahan bakar (hydrocarbon fuels) : kokas, gas dan minyak bumi.
    3. Energi listrik.
    4. Energi terselubung/tersembunyi (conserved energy = sensible heat), panas buangan dipakai untuk pemanasan awal (preheating process).
    Peralatan yang umumnya dipakai adalah :
    1. Tanur tiup (blast furnace).
    2. Reverberatory furnace.
    Sedangkan untuk pemurniannya dipakai :
    1. Pierce-Smith converter.
    2. Bessemer converter.
    3. Kaldo cenverter.
    4. Linz-Donawitz (L-D) converter.
    5. Open hearth furnace.
    3.2.  HIDROMETALURGI (HYDROMETALLURGY)
    Yaitu proses ekstraksi metal dengan larutan reagen encer (< 1 gramol) dan pada suhu < 100o C. Reaksi kimia yang dipilih biasanya yang sangat selektif;
    artinya hanya metal yang diinginkan saja yang akan bereaksi (larut) dan kemudian dipisahkan dari material yang tak diinginkan.
    Kondisi yang baik untuk hidrometalurgi adalah :
    1. Metal yang diinginkan harus mudah larut dalam reagen yang murah.
    2. Metal yang larut tersebut harus dapat “diambil” dari larutannya dengan mudah dan murah.
    3. Unsur atau metal lain yang ikut larut harus mudah dipisahkan pada proses berikutnya.
    4. Mineral-mineral pengganggu (gangue minerals) jangan terlalu banyak menyerap (bereaksi) dengan zat pelarut yang dipakai.
    5. Zat pelarutnya harus dapat “diperoleh kembali” untuk didaur ulang.
    6. Zat yang diumpankan (yang dilarutkan) jangan banyak mengandung lempung (clay minerals), karena akan sulit memisahkannya.
    7. Zat yang diumpankan harus porous atau punya permukaan kontak yang luas agar mudah (cepat) bereaksi pada suhu rendah.
    8. Zat pelarutnya sebaiknya tidak korosif dan tidak beracun (non-corrosive and non-toxic), jadi tidak membahayakan alat dan operator.
    Peralatan yang dipergunakan adalah :
    1. Electrolysis / electrolytic cell.
    2. Bejana pelindian (leaching box).
    3.3.  ELEKTROMETALURGI (ELECTROMETALLURGY)
    Suatu proses ekstraksi logam yang memakai teknik elektro-kimia, misalnya : baterai dan elektrolisa (electrolysis = electrorefining). Pada proses ini kecuali diperlukan arus listrik sebagai sumber energi juga diperlukan elektroda (electrodes) dan cairan elektrolit (electrolyte).
    Elektroda harus memiliki sifat-sifat :
    1. Konduktor listrik yang baik.
    2. Potensial yang terbentuk di sekitar elektroda harus rendah.
    3. Tidak mudah bereaksi dengan metal yang lain dan tidak membentuk campuran yang dapat mengganggu proses elektrolisa.
    Bila elektroda itu padat, ada syarat tambahan agar proses elektrolisa berlangsung memuaskan, yaitu harus :
    1. Mudah diperoleh atau disiapkan dengan murah.
    2. Tahan korosi dalam zat larut.
    3. Stabil, kuat dan tidak mudah terkikis (resistance to abrasion).
    4. Harus murah harganya.
    Elektrolit harus memiliki sifat-sifat :
    1. Memiliki daya hantar ion yang tinggi.
    2. Tidak mudah terurai atau bereaksi (high chemical stability).
    3. Memiliki daya larut yang tinggi bagi metal yang diinginkan.
    Peralatan yang biasa dipakai electric arc furnace.

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